Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics www.atmos-chem-phys.net 1680-7316 1680-7324 7 3 2007 10.5194/acp-7-757-2007 http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/757/2007/ http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/757/2007/acp-7-757-2007.html http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/7/757/2007/acp-7-757-2007.pdf 757 780 2007-02-14 Multi-model simulations of the impact of international shipping on Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate in 2000 and 2030 V. Eyring D. S. Stevenson A. Lauer F. J. Dentener T. Butler W. J. Collins K. Ellingsen M. Gauss D. A. Hauglustaine I. S. A. Isaksen M. G. Lawrence A. Richter J. M. Rodriguez M. Sanderson S. E. Strahan K. Sudo S. Szopa T. P. C. van Noije O. Wild DLR, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany University of Edinburgh, School of GeoSciences, Edinburgh, UK European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra, Italy Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany Met Office, Exeter, UK University of Oslo, Department of Geosciences, Oslo, Norway Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Gif-sur-Yvette, France University of Bremen, Institute for Environmental Physics, Bremen, Germany Goddard Earth Science {&} Technology Center (GEST), Maryland, Washington, DC, USA Frontier Research Center for Global Change, JAMSTEC, Yokohama, Japan Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), Atmospheric Composition Research, De Bilt, the Netherlands now at: University of Cambridge, Centre for Atmospheric Science, Cambridge, UK The global impact of shipping on atmospheric chemistry and radiative forcing, as well as the associated uncertainties, have been quantified using an ensemble of ten state-of-the-art atmospheric chemistry models and a pre-defined set of emission data. The analysis is performed for present-day conditions (year 2000) and for two future ship emission scenarios. In one scenario ship emissions stabilize at 2000 levels; in the other ship emissions increase with a constant annual growth rate of 2.2% up to 2030 (termed the "Constant Growth Scenario" (CGS)). Most other anthropogenic emissions follow the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) SRES (Special Report on Emission Scenarios) A2 scenario, while biomass burning and natural emissions remain at year 2000 levels. An intercomparison of the model results with observations over the Northern Hemisphere (25°–60° N) oceanic regions in the lower troposphere showed that the models are capable to reproduce ozone (O₃) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x=NO+NO₂) reasonably well, whereas sulphur dioxide (SO₂) in the marine boundary layer is significantly underestimated. The most pronounced changes in annual mean tropospheric NO₂ and sulphate columns are simulated over the Baltic and North Seas. Other significant changes occur over the North Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico and along the main shipping lane from Europe to Asia, across the Red and Arabian Seas. Maximum contributions from shipping to annual mean near-surface O₃ are found over the North Atlantic (5–6 ppbv in 2000; up to 8 ppbv in 2030). Ship contributions to tropospheric O₃ columns over the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans reach 1 DU in 2000 and up to 1.8 DU in 2030. Tropospheric O₃ forcings due to shipping are 9.8±2.0 mW/m² in 2000 and 13.6±2.3 mW/m² in 2030. Whilst increasing O₃, ship NO_x simultaneously enhances hydroxyl radicals over the remote ocean, reducing the global methane lifetime by 0.13 yr in 2000, and by up to 0.17 yr in 2030, introducing a negative radiative forcing. The models show future increases in NO_x and O₃ burden which scale almost linearly with increases in NO_x emission totals. Increasing emissions from shipping would significantly counteract the benefits derived from reducing SO₂ emissions from all other anthropogenic sources under the A2 scenario over the continents, for example in Europe. Globally, shipping contributes 3% to increases in O₃ burden between 2000 and 2030, and 4.5% to increases in sulphate under A2/CGS. However, if future ground based emissions follow a more stringent scenario, the relative importance of ship emissions will increase. Inter-model differences in the simulated O₃ contributions from ships are significantly smaller than estimated uncertainties stemming from the ship emission inventory, mainly the ship emission totals, the distribution of the emissions over the globe, and the neglect of ship plume dispersion. Beirle, S., Platt, U., von Glasow, R., Wenig, M., and Wagner T.: Estimate of nitrogen oxide emissions from shipping by satellite remote sensing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L18102, doi:10.1029/2004GL020312, 2004. Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., et al.: Global modelling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology: Model description and evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23 073–23 095, 2001. Brasseur, G., Cox, R., Hauglustaine, D. A., Isaksen, I. S. A., Lelieveld, J., Lister, D., Sausen, R., Schumann, U., Wahner, A., and Wiesen, P.: European scientific assessment of the atmospheric effect of aircraft emissions. Atmos. Environ., 32, 2329–2418, 1998. Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M., Crutzen, P. J. , Fischer, H., Güsten, H., Hans, W., Heinrich, G., Heintzenberg, J., Hermann, M., Immelmann, T., Kersting, D., Maiss, M., Nolle, M., Pitscheider, A., Pohlkamp, H., Scharffe, D., Specht, K. and Wiedensohler, A.: CARIBIC – Civil aircraft for global measurement of trace gases and aerosols in the tropopause region, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technology, 16, 1373–1383, 1999. Capaldo, K., Corbett, J. J., Kasibhatla, P., Fischbeck, P. S., and Pandis, S. N.: Effects of ship emissions on sulfur cycling and radiative climate forcing over the ocean, Nature, 400, 743–746, 1999. Chen, G., Huey, L. G., Trainer, M., Nicks, D., Corbett, J., Ryerson, T., Parrish, D., Neuman, J. A., Nowak, J., Tanner, D., Holloway, J., Brock, C., Crawford, J., Olson, J. R., Sullivan, A., Weber, R., Schauffler, S., Donnelly, S., Atlas, E., Roberts, J., Flocke, F., Hubler, G., and Fehsenfeld, F.: An investigation of the chemistry of ship emission plumes during ITCT 2002, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S90, doi:10.1029/2004JD005236, 2005. Collins, W. J, Stevenson, D. S., Johnson, C. E., and Derwent, R. G.: Tropospheric ozone in a global-scale three-dimensional Lagrangian model and its response to NO_x emission controls, J. Atmos. Chem., 26, 223–274, 1997. Collins, W. J., Derwent, R. G., Garnier, B., Johnson, C. E., Sanderson, M. G., and Stevenson, D. S.: The effect of stratosphere-troposphere exchange on the future tropospheric ozone trend, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D12), 8528, doi:10.1029/2002JD002617, 2003. Corbett, J. J. and Fischbeck, P.: Emissions from ships, Science, 278(5339), 823–824, 1997. Corbett, J. J., Fischbeck, P. S., and Pandis, S. N.: Global nitrogen and sulfur inventories for oceangoing ships, J. Geophys. Res., 104(3), 3457–3470, 1999. Corbett, J. J. and Köhler, H. W.: Updated emissions from ocean shipping, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4650, doi:10.1029/2003JD003751, 2003. Corbett, J. J. and Köhler, H. W.: Considering alternative input parameters in an activity-based ship fuel consumption and emissions model: Reply to comment by Øyvind Endresen et al. on "Updated emissions from ocean shipping", J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23303, doi:10.1029/2004JD005030, 2004. Davis, D. D., Grodzinsky, G., Kasibhatla, P., Crawford, J., Chen, G., Liu, S., Bandy, A., Thornton, D., Guan, H., and Sandholm, S.: Impact of ship emissions on marine boundary layer NO_x and SO₂ distributions over the Pacific Basin, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 235–238, 2001. Dentener, F., Peters, W., Krol, M., van Weele, M., Bergamaschi, P., and Lelieveld, J.: Interannual variability and trend of CH₄ lifetime as a measure for OH changes in the 1979–1993 time period, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D15), 4442, doi:10.1029/2002JD002916, 2003. Dentener, F., Stevenson, D. S., Cofala, J., Mechler, R., Amann, M., Bergamaschi, P., Raes, F., and Derwent, R. G.: The impact of air pollutant and methane emission controls on tropospheric ozone and radiative forcing: CTM calculations for the period 1990–2030, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1731–1755, 2005. Dentener, F., Stevenson, D., Ellingsen, K., Van Noije, T., Schultz, M., Amann, M., Atherton, C., Bell, N., Bergmann, D., Bey, I., Bouwman, L., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W., Doherty, R., Drevet, J., Eickhout, B., Eskes, H., Fiore, A., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I. S. A., Josse, B., Krol, M., Lamarque, J. F., Lawrence, M., Montanaro, V., Müller, J. F., Peuch, V. H., Pitari, G., Pyle, J., Rast, S., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Savage, N., Shindell, D., Strahan, S., Szopa, S., Sudo, K., Van Dingenen, R., Wild, O., and Zeng, G.: Global Atmospheric Environment for the next generation, Environmental Science and Technology, 40, 3586–3594, 2006a. Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque, J. F., Bey, I., Eickhout, B., Fiore, A., Hauglustaine, D., Horowitz, L. W., Krol, M., Kulshrestha, U. C., Lawrence, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Rast, S., Shindell, D., Stevenson, D., van Noije, T., Atherton, C., Bell, N., Bergmann, D., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, B., Doherty, R., Ellingsen, K., Galloway, J., Gauss, M., Montanaro, V., Müller, J. F., Pitari, G., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Solomon, F., Strahan, S., Schultz, M., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Wild, O.: Nitrogen and sulphur deposition on regional and global scales: A multi-model evaluation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB4003, doi:10.1029/2005GB002672, 2006b. Derwent, R. G, Stevenson, D. S., Doherty, R. M., Collins, W. J., Sanderson, M. G., Johnson, C. E., Cofala, J., Mechler, R., Amann, M., and Dentener, F. J.: The contribution from ship emissions to air quality and acid deposition in Europe, Ambio, 34, 54–59, 2005. Edwards, J. M. and Slingo, A.: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: choosing a configuration for a large-scale model, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 689–719, 1996. Endresen, Ø., Sørgård , E., Sundet, J. K., Dalsøren, S. B., Isaksen, I. S. A., Berglen, T. F., and Gravir, G.: Emission from international sea transportation and environmental impact, J. Geophys. Res. 108, 4560, doi:10.1029/2002JD002898, 2003. Endresen, Ø., Sørgård, E., Bakke, J., and Isaksen, I.S.A.: Substantiation of a lower estimate for the bunker inventory: Comment on "Updated emissions from ocean shipping" by James J. Corbett and Horst W. Koehler, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23302, doi:10.1029/2004JD004853, 2004. Emmons, L. K., Hauglustaine, D. A., Muller, J.-F., Carroll, M. A., Brasseur, G. P., Brunner, D. , Staehelin, J., Thouret, V., and Marenco, A.: Data composites of airborne observations of tropospheric ozone and its precursors, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 20 497–20 538, 2000. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.A.), SPECIATE 3.2, profiles of total organic compounds and particulate matter, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/software/speciate/index.html, 2002. Esler, J. G.: An integrated approach to mixing sensitivities in tropospheric chemistry: A basis for the parameterization of subgrid-scale emissions for chemistry transport models, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D20), 4632, doi:10.1029/2003JD003627, 2003. Eyring, V., Köhler, H. W., van Aardenne, J., and Lauer, A.: Emissions from international shipping: 1. The last 50 years, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D17305, doi:10.1029/2004JD005619, 2005a. Eyring, V., Köhler, H. W., Lauer, A., and Lemper, B.: Emissions from international shipping: 2. Impact of future technologies on scenarios until 2050, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D17306, doi:10.1029/2004JD005620, 2005b. Granier, C., Niemeier, U., Jungclaus, J. H., Emmons, L., Hess, P., Lamarque, J.-F., Walters, S., and Brasseur, G. P.: Ozone pollution from future ship traffic in the Arctic northern passages, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L13807, doi:10.1029/2006GL026180, 2006. Grewe, V., Dameris, M., Fichter, C., and Sausen, R.: Impact of aircraft NO_x emissions. Part 1: Interactively coupled climate-chemistry simulations and sensitivities to climate-chemistry feedback, lightning and model resolution, Meteorol. Z., 3, 177–186, 2002. Hauglustaine, D. A., Hourdin, F., Walters, S., Jourdain, L., Filiberti, M.-A., Larmarque, J.-F., and Holland, E.A.: Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique general circulation model~: description and background tropospheric chemistry evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04314, doi:10.1029/2003JD003957, 2004. Haywood, J. M., and Shine, K. P.: The effect of anthropogenic sulphate and soot aerosol on the clear sky planetary radiation budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22(5): 603–606, 1995. Isaksen, I. S. A., Zerefos, C. S., Kourtidis, K., Meleti, C., Dalsoren, S. B., Sundet, J. K., Grini, A., Zanis, P., and Balis, D.: Tropospheric ozone changes at unpolluted and semipolluted regions induced by stratospheric ozone changes, J. Geophys. Res., 110 (2), D02302, doi: 10.1029/2004JD004618, 2005. IMO (International Maritime Organization): IMO Sub-Committee on Bulk Materials, 22$^nd$ Session, Agenda Item 7, Ref.code IMO, BCH 22/INF.10, IMO, London, 1992. IMO (International Maritime Organization): Regulations for the prevention of air pollution from ships and NO_x technical code, ANNEX VI of MARPOL 73/78, London, 1998. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): Special report on emissions scenarios: a special report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 599 pp., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K, 2000. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): Climate change 2001: The scientific basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Third Assessment Report, J. T. Houghton, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2001. Kasibhatla, P., Levy II, H., Moxim, W. J., Pandis, S. N., Corbett, J. J., Peterson, M. C., Honrath, R. E., Frost, G. J., Knapp, K., Parrish, D. D., and Ryerson, T. B.: Do emissions from ships have a significant impact on concentration of nitrogen oxides in the marine boundary layer?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(15), 2229–2233, 2000. Labrador, L. J., von Kuhlmann, R., and Lawrence, M. G.: Strong sensitivity of the global mean OH concentration and the troposphere's oxidizing efficiency to the source of NO_x from lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31(6), L06102, doi:10.1029/2003GL019229, 2004. Lacis, A. A., Wuebbles, D. J., and Logan, J. A.: Radiative forcing of climate by changes in the vertical distribution of ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 9971–9981, 1990. Langner, J. and Rodhe, H.: A global three-dimensional model of the tropospheric sulphur cycle, J. Atmos. Chem., 13, 225–263, 1991. Lawrence, M. G. and Crutzen, P. J.: Influence of NO_x emissions from ships on tropospheric photochemistry and climate, Nature, 402, 167–170, 1999. Lawrence, M. G., Crutzen, P. J., Rasch, P. J., Eaton, B. E., and Mahowald, N. M.: A model for studies of tropospheric photochemistry: Description, global distributions, and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 26 245–26 277, 1999. Lelieveld, J., van Ardenne, J., Fischer, H., de Reus, M., Williams, J., and Winkler, P.: Increasing ozone over the Atlantic Ocean, Science, 304(5676), 1483–1487, 2004. Lloyd's Maritime Information System (LMIS): The Lloyd's Maritime Database [CD-ROM], Lloyd's Register–Fairplay Ltd., London, 2002. Marenco, A., Thouret, V., Nédélec, P., Smit, H., Helten, M., et al.: Measurement of ozone and water vapor by Airbus in-service aircraft: The MOZAIC airborne program, An overview, J. Geophys. Res., 103(D19), 25 631–25 642, 1998. Olivier, J. G. J. and Berdowski, J. J. M.: Global emissions sources and sinks, in: The climate system, edited by: J. J. M Berdowski, R Guicherit, and B. J Heij, A A Balkema, Publishers/Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2001. Rasch, P. J., Mahowald, N. M. and Eaton, B. E.: Representations of transport, convection and the hydrologic cycle in chemical transport models: Implications for the modeling of short lived and soluble species. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 28 127–28 138, 1997. Richter, A., Eyring, V., Burrows, J. P., Bovensmann, H., Lauer, A., Sierk, B., and Crutzen, P. J.: Satellite measurements of NO₂ from international shipping emissions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23110, doi:10.1029/2004GL020822, 2004. Sadourny, R. and Laval, K.: January and July performance of the LMD general circulation model, in: New Perspectives in Climate Modeling, edited by: A Berger and C Nicolis, pp.173–197, Elsevier, 1984. Sausen, R., Isaksen, I. S. A., Grewe, V., Hauglustaine, D. A., Lee, D. S., Myhre, G., Köhler, M. O., Pitari, G., Schumann, U., Stordal, F., and Zerefos, C.: Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: An update on IPCC (1999), Meteorol. Z., 14, 555–561, 2005. Schreier, M., Kokhanovsky, A. A., Eyring, V., Bugliaro, L., Mannstein, H., Mayer, B., Bovensmann, H., and Burrows, J. P.: Impact of ship emissions on the microphysical, optical and radiative properties of marine stratus: a case study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4925–4942, 2006. Scorer, R. S.: Ship trails, Atmos. Environ., 21, 1417–1425, 1987. Shindell, D. T., Faluvegi, G., Stevenson, D. S., Emmons, L. K., Lamarque, J.-F., Pétron, G., Dentener, F. J., Ellingsen, K., Amann, M., Atherton, C. S., Bergmann, D. J., Bey, I., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W. J., Derwent, R. G., Doherty, R. M., Drevet, J., Eskes, H. J., Fiore, A. M., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D. A., Horowitz, L. W., Isaksen, I. S. A., Krol, M. C., Lawrence, M. G., Montanaro, V., Müller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Pyle, J. A., Rast, S., Rodriguez, J. M., Sanderson, M. G., Savage, N. H., Schultz, M. G., Strahan, S. E., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Unger, N., van Noije, T. P. C., Wild, O., and Zeng, G.: Multi-model simulations of carbon monoxide: Comparison with observations and projected near-future changes, J. Geophys. Res., 11, D19306, doi:10.1029/2006JD007100, 2006. Simmonds, P. G., Manning, A. J., Derwent, R. G., Ciais, P., Ramonet, M., Kazan, V., and Ryall, D.: A burning question. Can recent growth rate anomalies in the greenhouse gases be attributed to large-scale biomass burning events? Atmos. Environ., 39(14), 2513–2517, 2005. Singh, H. B., Brune, W. H., Crawford, J. H., Jacob, D. J., and Russell, P. B.: Overview of the Summer 2004 Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment-North America (INTEX-A), J. Geophys. Res., 111, D24S01, doi:10.1029/2006JD007905, 2006. Song, C. H., Chen, G., Hanna, S. R., Crawford, J., and Davis, D. D.: Dispersion and chemical evolution of ship plumes in the marine boundary layer: Investigation of O₃ /NO_y /HO_x chemistry version, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4143, doi:10.1029/2002JD002216, 2003. Stevenson, D. S., Johnson, C. E., Collins, W. J., Derwent, R. G., Shine, K. P., and Edwards, J. M.: Evolution of tropospheric ozone radiative forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 3819–3822, 1998. Stevenson, D. S., Doherty, R. M., Sanderson, M. G., Collins, W. J., Johnson, C. E., and Derwent, R. G.: Radiative forcing from aircraft NO_x emissions: mechanisms and seasonal dependence, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D17307, doi:10.1029/2004JD004759, 2004. Stevenson, D. S., Dentener, F. J., Schultz, M. G., Ellingsen, K., van Noije, T. P. C., Wild, O., Zeng, G., Amann, M., Atherton, C. S., Bell, N., Bergmann, D. J., Bey, I., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W. J., Derwent, R. G., Doherty, R. M., Drevet, J., Eskes, H. J., Fiore, A. M., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D. A., Horowitz, L. W., Isaksen, I. S. A., Krol, M. C., Lamarque, J.-F., Lawrence, M. G., Montanaro, V., Müller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Pyle, J. A., Rast, S., Rodriguez, J. M., Sanderson, M. G., Savage, N. H., Shindell, D. T., Strahan, S. E., Sudo, K., and Szopa, S.: Multimodel ensemble simulations of present-day and near-future tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D08301, doi:10.1029/2005JD006338, 2006. Sudo, K., Takahashi, M., Kurokawa, J., and Akimoto, H.: CHASER: A global chemical model of the troposphere 1. Model description, J. Geophys. Res., 107 (D17), 4339, doi:10.1029/2001JD001113, 2002a. Sudo, K., Takahashi, M., and Akimoto, H.: CHASER: A global chemical model of the troposphere 2. Model results and evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 107 (D21), 4586, doi:10.1029/2001JD001114, 2002b. Sudo, K., Takahashi, M., and Akimoto, H.: Future changes in stratosphere-troposphere exchange and their impacts on future tropospheric ozone simulations, Geophys. Res. Letters, 30, 2256 10.1029/2003GL018526, 2003. Sundet, J. K.: Model Studies with a 3-D Global CTM using ECMWF data. Ph.D. thesis., Dept. of Geophysics, University of Oslo, Norway, 1997. Times Books: The Times Atlas of the World Comprehensive Edition 9$^th$ edn, London, 1992. van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Collatz, G. J., Giglio, L., Kasibhatla, P. S., Arellano Jr., A. F., Olsen, S. C., and Kasischke, E. S.: Continental-scale partitioning of fire emissions during the 1997 to 2001 El Niño/La Niña period, Science, 303, 73–76, 2004. van Noije, T. P. C., Eskes, H. J., van Weele, M., and van Velthoven, P. F. J.: Implications of the enhanced Brewer-Dobson circulation in European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts reanalysis ERA-40 for the stratosphere-troposphere exchange of ozone in global chemistry-transport models, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D19308, doi:10.1029/2004JD004586, 2004. van Noije, T. P. C., Eskes, H. J., Dentener, F. J., Stevenson, D. S., Ellingsen, K., Schultz, M. G., Wild, O., Amann, M., Atherton, C. S., Bergmann, D. J., Bey, I., Boersma, K. F., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Drevet, J., Fiore, A. M., Gauss, M., Hauglustaine, D. A., Horowitz, L. W., Isaksen, I.S.A., Krol, M. C., Lamarque, J.-F., Lawrence, M. G., Martin, R. V., Montanaro, V., Müller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Pyle, J. A., Richter, A., Rodriguez, J. M., Savage, N. H., Strahan, S. E., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and van Roozendael, M.: Multi-model ensemble simulations of tropospheric NO₂ compared with GOME retrievals for the year 2000, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2943–2979, 2006. von Glasow, R., Lawrence, M. G., Sander, R., and Crutzen, P. J.: Modeling the chemical effects of ship exhaust in the cloud-free marine boundary layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 233–250, 2003. von Kuhlmann, R., Lawrence, M. G., Crutzen, P. J., and Rasch, P. J.: A model for studies of tropospheric ozone and non-methane hydrocarbons: Model description and ozone results, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 4294, doi:10.1029/2002JD002893, 2003a. von Kuhlmann, R., Lawrence, M. G., Crutzen, P. J., and Rasch, P. J.: A model for studies of tropospheric ozone and non-methane hydrocarbons: Model evaluation of ozone-related species, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D23), 4729, doi:10.1029/2002JD003348, 2003b. Wild, O. and Prather, M. J.: Excitation of the primary tropospheric chemical mode in a global 3-D model, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 24 647–24 660, 2000. Wild, O. and Prather, M. J.: Global tropospheric ozone modeling: Quantifying errors due to grid resolution, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D11305, doi:10.1029/2005JD006605, 2006. Wild, O., Sundet, J. K., Prather, M. J., Isaksen, I. S. A., Akimoto, H., Browell, E. V., and Oltmans, S. J.: CTM Ozone Simulations for Spring 2001 over the Western Pacific: Comparisons with TRACE-P Lidar, ozonesondes and TOMS columns, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D21), 8826, doi:10.1029/2002JD003283, 2003.